All About Leaves

All About Leaves

By Madison Nef

Leaves are a very vital part of the tree. All leaves, while seemingly small, unimportant and just for décor… are responsible for producing all the food in the tree. Each leaf is like a small, green, natural factory that creates food for the rest of the tree. All leaves look different and are unique, like thumbprints. No leaf is the same as another leaf.

Depending on the type of tree, a leaf will look different. They are broad a blade-like, and come in many different sizes, shapes and colors. Their edges can be smooth or have small, jagged ridges called teeth. Looking at a leaf, the first thing you will notice about it is its shape. This can help you identify what kind of tree it’s from.

When describing leaf shapes, scientists use specific terminology to name them and tell them apart from each other. Here are the nine most common scientific names for leaf shapes:

     Linear

     Ovate

     Lanceolate

     Elliptic

     Deltoid

     Bipinnate

     Palmate

     Palmatifid

     Pinnate

Leaves are divided into these different categories by their structure. A leaf with just one blade is classified as ‘simple’. A leaf with many different blades is classified as ‘compound’, which breaks the leaves down into two categories- pinnate and palmate. Leaves of deciduous trees are often times flat and wide, while the leaves from conifer (evergreen and cone-bearing trees) are needle-like.

Deciduous are trees like oak and maple, which lose their leaves in the fall every year.

Conifer trees are evergreens, such as pine and spruce, that keep their leaves year-round.

With this out of the way… how, then, would you classify holly, boxwood, and rhododendron? These leaves are broad and flat like deciduous trees, but keep their leaves green and strong all year. These types of plants are called broadleaf evergreens, because they keep their leaves green and for many seasons.

And what about larch and cypress trees? These deciduous conifer trees, as they are called, have leaves like a conifer tree, but lose all of their needles in the winter.

Leaves are responsible for a lot: they give the tree food, shade food that the tree grows, and shade and keep the tree cool itself. Let’s look at the outside morphology of a leaf:

The blade is the broad, flat part of the leaf. The blade can be shiny, smooth, fuzzy, or dull. The top and bottom of the blade can be and often are different colors and shades.

The leaf margins, or the outer edges of the leaves, can be extremely smooth OR have jagged teeth or rounded lobes on the edge (as mentioned above).

The apex is the very tip of the leaf. The apex can be rounded, indented, or pointed- it all depends on the type of tree.

The petiole, or leaf stem, is what supports and connects the leaf to the tree. The petiole is a channel for the food and water that the tree AND the leaf both need to grow and survive.

These petioles can also bend so that the leaf gets all the sun it needs- something essential for the food-creating process. The stem also allows the leaf to bend the correct way in high winds to avoid damage.

Stipules are small leaf-like structures that form around the leaf as it begins to develop to protect it. For example, willow stipules actually produce a bug repellant so that bugs don’t damage the growing leaves.

The midrib is the center vein that runs down the center of most leaves. Pinnate, or feather-like leaves all have this midrib, with smaller veins that branch out on either side of it. Palmate leaves just have veins that spread out from the base of the stem.

All About Trunks

All About Trunks

By Madison Nef

The trunk is a very important part of a tree. It harbors the special tissues that move food and water throughout the tree, and serves a storage space for extra carbohydrates that can be used later in case of a drought or other form of natural catastrophe. It also provides good structural support for the leaves, branches and limbs of the tree.

The most visible part of the trunk is the bark. The bark is the harder outer layer meant to protect the tissues inside of the trunk. Bark is rough, tough and like armor- and it comes in many different consistencies and colors depending on the type of tree. Just beneath the bark layer are the cork cells- they are very important to the tree because they protect the rest of the tree if the bark gets damaged.

The next layer, below the bark and cork cells, is called the phloem. The phloem is responsible for transporting the food created and stored in leaves throughout the tree. It moves up, down, and in circular motions. The next layer in the trunk is called the cambium- it is only a single cell layer thick, but it is largely important because it produces the phloem cells to the outside of the tree and the xylem cells to the inside.

Without the cambium, the cells would not be able to replenish when they get damaged… therefore they would wither and die. If these vital cells die, then the whole tree dies… thus, without the cambium, the tree would die. Even though the cambium is just one cell thick, it is quite possibly the most important part of the tree.

Each spring, the cambium produces new xylem and phloem cells. This process starts and moves rapidly in the spring, slowing down in the summer and fall and coming to a complete stand-still in the winter. This creates the annual rings of a tree, which are visible when looking at the cross-section of a tree trunk (when the tree is cut down, and you look inside the stump). You can also tell how old a tree is if you count these rings- since they reproduce every year, it gives a good age. The condition of the rings can also tell you about what kind of life the tree has had, if you know what they mean.

Different types of trees react differently to different climates and weathering. For example, lots of rain often results in faster and more efficient growth, which leads to larger, wider rings. Drought, on the other hand, leads to slower growth and much narrower rings.

Narrow rings can also be caused by crowding from neighboring trees. If you ever see a tree with narrow rings on half the side of the trunk, and wider rings on another… the side with the narrower rings is the side that the tree was crowded on.

Old and non-functioning xylem cells are called heartwood. This wood is used as structural strength for the tree and also provides storage space for food and nutrients in the form of starches. If you chop a tree in half lengthways, you will see long rays running down the interior of it. These lines are called ray cells, and they are used as sewer lines, of a sort.

These ray cells are responsible for cleaning the tree out and disposing of all the waste, propelling it downward and out of the tree so the tree can survive healthily.

In most trunks, you can find knots in the wood. These knots are created when a tree grows around a branch, leaving this marking where the branch still is- just inside the tree.

Many trees are damaged and killed every year because of damage caused by humans. It is extremely harmful to remove the bark of a tree, as it kills the phloem and bark… which as we know are the two important protective layers of a tree. Carving initials of messages into the trees also kills the phloem, and gouging the bark with lawn mowers and string trimmers also deal a lot of damage, killing trees or causing them not to be able to grow properly.

While trees cannot be gouged or cut into without killing it, they have no trouble growing around objects. This process does not damage the tree in any way, as it can meld to whatever the object is. If ever you pass a tree with a weird piece of metal or anything else jutting out from it, this is likely what happened.

Even though heartwood does help to make a healthier tree, trees CAN live and survive with hollow centers. These hollows serve as homes for a lot of wildlife and animals- but the hollows are quite dangerous, as they are lighter and easily knocked down in the wind and bad weather.

The trunk is, indeed the body of a tree- largely important to its survival and crucial to its development. 

Roots

All About Roots

By Madison Nef

The roots are one of the most important parts of a tree. They spread wide and far underneath a tree, keeping it grounded. While the roots are very important, they are also the least understood part of a tree due to the fact that they are below ground and out of sight. Roots have 4 largely important jobs:

·        They anchor a tree into the ground

·        They act as a pipeline

·        They absorb all the water and nutrients a tree needs to survive and function

·        They store extra carbohydrates that a tree needs if it cannot create its own food

There are a few different types of roots: structural roots provide the framework for supporting a tree. These roots grow thicker as they age, and are covered with a protective layer of bark (much like a tree limb). Then, there are tap roots… MOST trees have a taproot. A taproot is the largest of the roots, and it usually grows directly downward. A taproot will only form downwards if the soil is loose and not packed… most times, taproots are forced to grow lengthways because the soil is too firm.

When roots grow horizontally, they develop sinker roots that can grow through thicker dirt 3-7 feet down. Sinker roots are often thinner than the taproot (which can grow to be as wide as the tree itself when growing downward) and are more spread out. Their main purpose is to hold the tree in place in the ground.

10% of a tree’s mass is contained in its roots, which are found underground. Larger roots are used to store extra carbohydrates in the form of sugar, so that the tree has a good supply of sugar it can live off of in case of a dire situation, such as a drought. These large roots, while majorly important, barely make up even a fraction of all the active roots in the root system, however.

These roots, while small in comparison to all roots, have the largest responsibility out of them all. They are called “fibrous” roots and deliver essential water and nutrients to the tree. These roots are horizontal and widespread. These roots often make large clumps and mats in the dirt, which are responsible for absorbing all the water and the minerals which in turn go to the tree. To make this process more efficient, the roots are covered in tiny hairs.

The number of hairs a root has depends on its surface area… a root exposed directly to dirt will not absorb much. The more hair a root has, the more dirt the root is exposed to. The more dirt the root is exposed to… the more minerals and water it can absorb. These hairs definitely make the absorption process more efficient and easier.

The nutrients a tree needs travels through the root hairs through a process called osmosis. This is a Greek word, meaning ‘to push’. In this process, water dissolved with minerals moves through a semi-permeable root hair membrane; going from a high concentration in the soil to a low concentration in the root hair and membrane cells.

The minerals and water then move through a cortex, which takes the nutrients and delivers it directly to the tree when it is needed.

Root hairs generally increase in length in order to absorb more water. For example, a 4 month old grass plant has over 14 billion root hairs with an absorbing surface of 401 square meters and a total length of 10,000 kilometers.

Fibrous roots are ALWAYS growing to find new soil and new nutrients for their tree as they soak up the soil they are already in. However, when new roots form, they are very fine and weak until they start to absorb and age. To protect these fragile roots, the roots form root caps on the ends of them so they don’t get damaged while pushing through. While growing, a fibrous root’s cells are constantly being renewed as it snakes its way through the soil.

These roots spread so far… they often times spread up to 2-3 times the height of the tree. Soil type determines how far the roots spread- they grow faster and spread farther in sandy soil than in tough clay soil.

In conclusion: roots are amazing parts of the tree, and very important and crucial to a tree’s survival. Without roots… trees:

·        Would not be anchored to the ground, and would fall over

·        Would not have extra energy and nutrients stored for droughts

·        Would not be able to get nutrients AT ALL

·        Would not be able to survive whatsoever.

Notes (4)

The United Kingdom

The United Kingdom is very small- about the size of Oregon. It lies just northwest of the continent of Europe. Four regions make up this country- England, Wales and Scotland (located on the island of Great Britain) and Northern Ireland, which shares a different island with the Republic of Ireland.

The English Channel is the most prominent waterway into The UK. If you entered the UK from here, you’d find yourself looking out over a large, lush valley with many patchwork fields and farms visible. However, if you continued onward, you’d find large industrial cities such as London and Birmingham. This is a good reminder that the south and east of Great Britain are very urban and contain the most crowded areas in the UK.

To the west and north, you will find the three southernmost regions of the UK- Wales, England and Scotland. These regions are made up of lush highlands- low mountain ranges and many moors- treeless, vast valleys known for their damp and lush grounds. Water is never far away and is almost always visible; as northwestern England houses the beautiful blue and clear waters of the Lake District.

A lowland in the middle of Scotland is home to two of Scotland’s largest and most important industrial cities- Glasgow and Edinburgh. These two cities are full of life and hold most of Scotland’s population. They are filled with large farmlands and a LOT of industrial buildings and factories. Belfast is the region’s main city and port.

The UK has very mild weather, despite the fact that it lies as far north if not FARTHER north in some areas than Canada. What is the reason for this? The North Atlantic Current carries the warm waters from the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico to Great Britain. The wind blowing over these warm waters cools England in the summer and heats in during the winter- a perfect system, really.

While these winds give great climate, they aren’t all good. They also give very rainy weather- which while it is great for the agriculture, sucks for tourism. If ever you should travel to England, bring a raincoat and umbrella- the skies are over-cast and cloud-filled for more than half the year.

The Economy of the United Kingdom

Resources and Manufacturing

More than 200 years ago, scientists and inventors alike caused the Industrial Revolution. They invented fuel-powered machinery and put it to work in factories, which led to mass-production of goods... so many goods that the UK didn’t know what to do with it.  The revolution helped to make the UK the leading economic influence during the 1800’s. While the country’s influence significantly fell in the 1900’s, it is back up and currently the 6^th most influential economic country in the world.

The UK’s biggest export and resource is natural fuels and energy resources. They export oil and natural gas, which is pumped from underneath the North Sea. They also have a lot of coal. This natural energy powers the country, but a majority of it is also gets exported to other countries in trade.

The machinery, ships, and cars used to be the UK’s main exports. However, stiff competition from other countries led to an industrial warfare of sorts which caused the UK to bring in newer technology and more machinery, thus getting rid of the English traditional smokestack factories. Still, manufactured goods and machinery are among England’s top exports.

Most of the UK’s residents work in the service industries- banks, healthcare, commercial industry, communications and insurance. London is actually regarded as one of the most important financial headquarters in the world. The United Kingdom is also part of the European Union, a union that’s main goal is to make inner-country trading easier.

Because of this, most of England’s brother and sister countries have adopted the euro as a common currency. However, the United Kingdom has not and continues to use the British pound as their currency; though this may change in the near future.

 Agriculture

The farmers in England are very efficient workers. They use machinery to help them with harvests, planting and care of the crops, thus resulting in a much larger harvest. Even with these large harvests, the UK still needs to import over a third of its food resources from other countries. The reason for this is that there is not enough room for more farming fields and the crops that DO get harvested are not enough to feed and supply the UK’s large and ever-growing population.

Government

When you cast your first vote at an US election, you’re actually copying a British tradition. Framers of the US Constitution copied many parts of the British form of government. The UK is a parliamentary democracy, meaning a form of government in which voters elect representatives to a lawmaking body called the Parliament. It has two houses- the House of Commons, which chooses the government’s leader, the prime minister; AND THE House of Lords.

Voters elect 651 member for the House of Commons- the political party that has the largest number of members in the House of Commons chooses the government’s leader. The secondary house, the House of Lords, has very little power whatsoever. Most members of this house are nobles who have inherited the title. This house cannot block any laws that the other house wants to pass, but it can help in REVISING laws.

Follow The River - Plot and Protagonist

Follow The River
Report by Madison Nef
‘Follow the River’ follows the story of Mary Draper Ingles, a young woman who was captured by Indians after her colony was slain and overtaken by Shawnee Indians. It is a story of bravery, courage, and perseverance. While held captive with her sister-in-law, two sons, and a newborn baby who was born in captivity, Mary meets many new people, learns the culture of the Shawnee Indians and embarks on a 500-mile journey on foot back to her home. This is a summary of the story, and a characterization of Mary.
Mary Draper Ingles
Mary is described as a small, curvy and beautiful woman. She is 23 and the mother of 3 children- Georgie, Tommy and Bettie. Mary has long auburn hair that “falls in waves down her back” and she often leaves it down, even in the summer and while cooking over a hot pot. She is very mild-mannered and loving and cares dearly for her whole family. She is married to Will Ingles. Mary starts off as a very fearful, meek-demeanor character that lets herself be pushed around, but as the story progresses, she grows stronger as a person. She starts to be courageous, driven by her own will, and has more self-confidence. Even in the captivity of the Indians, she doesn’t let her spirits fall and shows her pride.
Mentally, she is very strong. She is wise when it comes to making decisions about her health and her family… even if it hurts her sometimes. She is selfless and willing to sacrifice herself in order to save her family, even die to save their lives. When she makes her long journey, she chooses to leave her children in the care of the Indians. Even though it pains her to do so, she knows that they will die if they accompany her and have a better chance of a good life with the Shawnee tribe.
She is often ladylike, but abandons that prospect around the Indians as she needs to act strong and rougher to survive. By the end of the book, she is more savage and hardened than the beginning, having become more like what she tried to project herself as. A 500-mile journey could do that to just about anyone, I think…
Plot
The book begins on Sunday, July 8 of 1755. Mary and her family are going about their normal Sunday afternoon chores- Mary is cooking, Bettie is doing laundry, the children are picking berries with their grandmother and the men are out in the fields cutting grains. The Shawnee Indians live close to their settlement, but have always kept peace with the settlement due to good trading. However, Mary feels uneasy but upon urging her husband and brother to take their guns to the fields with them, they deny her saying that the guns would just be “extra weight”. Lo and behold, Indians attack, killing several men who were in the village at the time. When they find Mary's sister-in-law, Bettie Draper with her baby, they brutally kill the child. They then locate Mary's two sons who and mother. They kill and scalp the old woman and take the boys, Mary, Bettie and one man from the village hostage. John and Will, the husbands of Bettie and Mary, see the attack but unarmed fear for their lives and flee.
Mary is full-term pregnant with a child at the time of her capture and has her baby daughter on the trail to the Shawnee's camp. Fearing for her life and that of her daughter, Mary goes through childbirth without crying - a fact that impresses her captor, Chief Wildcat. The band of Indians travel westward for a month, and Mary tracks the days by tying a new knot in a length of yarn each morning. Along the way, the Indians seem to befriend and take interest in Mary's sons, Georgie and Tommy. Mary sees the boys quickly turning to the Indians but is helpless to stop it... something that pains her worse than her harsh living situations. Once in the camp, most of the people are required to run a brutal and deadly gauntlet. Indians form a double line, and the captors run through it while being struck by sticks and clubs. If the captors fall, they are returned to the beginning. Bettie runs the gauntlet as does a Dutch woman taken by another Indian band. The woman, Ghetle, becomes Mary's friend. Mary isn't required to run the gauntlet because of her bravery in childbirth.
Chief Wildcat wants Mary to accept him and become his wife. However, Mary loves Will and believes there is a way to get back to him. Because of this, she turns him down, and he leaves without argument. Mary is then sold to a French merchant doing business in the camp and spends her time sewing shirts for the Indians. Georgie and Tommy are taken away from her by Wildcat, to be raised as young Indian children. Another Indian woman, Otter Girl, has lost a child and takes over much of the care for Mary's own daughter.
On a trip away from the Indian camp to gather salt, Mary and Ghetle escape. Mary leaves the baby behind in the care of Otter Girl, knowing that the child would likely cry and give them away or starve to death on the trail. Mary and Ghetle escape, spending more than a month traveling back along the New River in an effort to reach Mary's home at Draper's Meadow. Along the way, they fashion their own wooden spears from branches and survive with only these and a tomahawk stolen from the Shawnee camp. They eat a poor diet of roots, berries and wild fruits… many of which make them ill. They survive without fire at all, sleeping together in the winter. All they have between them are two blankets, their dilapidating clothing and the weapon.
Their shoes are ruined with weather, and about half-way through their trip they are forced to walk barefoot. Fortunately enough, they find a horse that has been abandoned by her owner and she lightens up to them quickly. The two women take turns riding the horse, so as not to tire her and themselves. As they draw closer to Draper’s Meadow, Ghetle begins to go crazy. She brutally attacks and eats a bullfrog raw due to her ravenous hunger… used to being fed well when not a prisoner, she has an appetite that is hard to fill. She is also incredibly lazy, burdening Mary more than helping her. She comes very close to getting them re-captured for the sake of her own needs of being fed and clothed about three times during their journey.
 About a week’s travel away from Draper’s Meadow, Ghetle reaches her breaking point and goes into a fit of rage. She steals the tomahawk from Mary and attacks her with it, threatening to kill her and eat her. Mary disarms her, but unfortunately loses the tomahawk in the process. She knocks Ghetle out, and then continues across the river to escape. She reaches her settlement quickly without any further signs of Ghetle and once she reaches the outer-most dwelling, she is nursed back to health. Ghetle is found about a day later wandering the region and is taken to the settlement to be treated for her many injuries.
Mary and Will reunite, each worried about what the other will think. John and William had lived with another Indian tribe while trying to rebuild the settlement, and Will was worried that Mary would hate him for abandoning their family. Mary, on the other hand, is worried that Will won’t like that she so willingly gave up their children. However, they reconcile and both understand each other’s choices. They go on to have four more children together, and are eventually reunited with their eldest son, Tommy. Georgie died as a child, and didn’t live long after the time of Mary leaving. It is never discovered what happened to their daughter, but it is assumed that she lived in the care of Otter Girl.
Bettie Draper never escaped the Shawnee Indian camp, but Mary, John and Will are able to ransom her from the Indian who had eventually adopted her as his wife. This takes a lot of crops, but it is managed and she and John live on the settlement, having 2 more children together.

Notes

Ireland is VERY different from the United Kingdom in many ways. Religion is a large part of Irish culture, with 90% of its inhabitants being Catholic. The population size is also much different- there are approximately 3.7 million people living in Ireland currently, as opposed to the UK’s 59 million count.

Against the blue water of the Atlantic Ocean, Ireland’s rolling green hills and plentiful forests stand out like a sore thumb- this gorgeous greenery has earned Ireland the nickname “The Emerald Isle”. In western Ireland, the land is risen high up in rocky cliffs that overlook the Atlantic. At the core of Ireland is a large rolling plain with many farms and forests. Most of this area is covered in peat, a wet ground with many decaying plants. Peat is often times dried out and used as natural fuel. It can be dug from bogs, creeks, and most swamps and marshlands.

The Shannon River flows through the center of these plains. Dublin, Ireland’s capital and largest city, lies to the East.

·         QUICK FACT! No part of Ireland is more than 70 miles from the sea.

While Ireland has few mineral resources, it makes up for what it lacks in good farmland. Because of the moist ground, it is great for farming and raising cattle and has been for years. In the early 1800’s, many Irish farmers grew potatoes in the dirt as their main source of food. Unfortunately, disaster hit when too much rain and foul weather allowed an unwelcome disease to spread through the plants. The disease spread like wildfire through the vast farmer’s fields and the Irish, having basically nothing else to eat, suffered greatly and over a million people died in what is now known as “The Potato Famine”.

Because of this, Ireland’s population declined and many of the survivors of this famine packed up and moved to the United States, where they believed it would be easier to live and raise families. Ireland’s farmers still grew potatoes, but they also learned to cultivate barley, wheat, sugar beets, and turnips. They still raise these crops to this day, along with raising beef and dairy cattle.

Notes (2)

Canada- the second largest country in the world. It lies to the north of the USA. The border between these two countries is the longest unprotected border in the world and one of the only ones where you won’t be stopped by military troops as you cross the border. Like the US, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans are to the East and West, respectively. Unlike the US, however, Canada does not have states. Instead, the country is made up of ten provinces and 3 different territories.

Canada’s Landforms

 Glaciers used to cover almost all of Canada during the Ice Age. The ice pushed a lot of the land down, creating a large basin with landforms rising on the eastern, western and northern sides of this basin. Land that got pushed down further created other lesser basins, and this has resulted in Canada’s many lakes and waterways.

Since Canada is so large, geographers have divided it into five physical regions as follows:

The Eastern Highlands

Also known as the Appalachian Highlands. Known for its rolling hills, low mountains, and valleys dotted with tidy working farms. Along the coast, there are a few harbors hidden along the rocky and unsafe coastline.

The St. Lawrence and Great Lakes Lowlands

These lowlands cut across the eastern highland area and continue running West down into the Great Lakes region. The St. Lawrence  and the Great Lakes are major waterways that lead out into the Atlantic Ocean and run along the coast of the Atlantic. This makes these waterways ideal for barges with imports such as grain, coal, ores and many other imports. In the St. Lawrence river valley, there is rich soil, good transportation and many farms… and also a lot of urban life. Much of Canada’s livelihood can be found here.  

The Canadian Shield and the Arctic Islands

The Canadian Shield is a horseshoe-like region that wraps around the Hudson Bay. Included in it is about half, if not more of Canada’s entire land mass. A lot of this area is covered with hills that have been worn down by erosion and the thousands of lakes that were created by glacial pressure so many years ago.

The Interior Plains

The Great Plains region of the US is also known as the Interior Plains of Canada. The northern part of this region is littered with large lakes, while the southern portion is a large prairie with fertile soil and many farms. Years ago, cattle swarmed over these prairies. They were driven out and replaced by cattle ranches and farms.

The Rocky Mountains

This is another landform that Canada shares with the US. The Canadian side of the rockies are known for their exquisite beauty and rich mineral sources. Tourists often come here, mainly going to Banff and Jasper National Park.

Notes (1)

The US is 2,807 miles across the center of North America. It is the 4^th largest country in the world, behind Russia, Canada and China. The US consists of 50 states. The states have five main physical regions: The Coastal Plains, the Appalachian Mountains, the Interior Plains, the Mountains and Basins, and the Pacific Coast.

The Coastal Plains

The plains are a broad lowland that runs across the eastern/southeastern coast of the USA. This plain stretches from Massachusetts all the way down to Florida and widens as you go further south. The eastern lowlands, or the Atlantic Coastal Plain, are littered with a lot of excellent harbors which has led to the growth of shipping ports, such as New York City. The soil in the northern part of this plain is known to be very thin, dry, and rocky. Boston, NYC, Baltimore, Philidalphia and Washington DC all are based in this plain. Geographers refer to this as a megalopolis.

The Appalachian Mountains

This range is along the western side of the Coastal Plains. It is called the Appalachian Mountain Range because it is made up entirely of the Appalachian Mountains. These mountains run about 1500 miles from eastern Canada right down into Alabama. They are easily the oldest mountains on the continent- you can tell this from looking at their peaks, which have rounded due to erosion over time. The highest peak is Mount Mitchell, which in North Carolina rises up 6684 feet.

The Interior Plains

After you cross through the Appalachians heading west, you enter into the vast Interior Plains. The eastern section is called the Central Lowland- a large plain with fertile fields and plenty of productive farms. The forests are thick, lush and healthy and this land also contains essential waterways. The Great Lakes are also all located in the Central Lowland- this is due to the glaciers many years ago that melted down into what are today known as Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario. The water of all these lakes flow out into the St. Lawrence River, which in turn empties out into the Atlantic Ocean.

Mountains and Basins

West of the Interior Plains lies the Rocky Mountains- the LONGEST mountain range in North America. They were created due to the shifting and clashing of tectonic plates, which over time has risen some of the peaks up to over 14,000 feet above sea level. Along the ridge of this mountain range is the continental divide, which separates the water that flows west (towards the Pacific Ocean) from those who flow east (towards the Mississippi river).

West of the Rocky Mountains are three large plateaus; the northern Columbia Plateau, the southern Great Basin, and the even FARTHER south Colorado Plateau.

The Pacific Coast

Near the pacific there are two other much smaller mountain ranges. The Cascade Range goes from Washington State all the way to California, and much like the rockies, the peaks are extremely high due to collision of the tectonic plates. On the eastern side of California you have the Sierra Nevada- “Nevada” means “snow covered” in Spanish. Even as far south as they are, these mountains are always topped with snow- giving them their meaningful name.